Philosophy Final Quizlet - History of Philosophy Final Flashcards.

The honest merchant who acts honestly because of fear of being caught. Bertrand Russell would argue that a belief is true if it corresponds with a fact. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like What is the cause of change for Empedocles?, Three of Plato's more enlightening and well-known dialogs are:, What is a syllogism? and more. Chapter 5: Legal and Ethical Issues. Kant pursues this project through the first two chapters. 1st philosophy was originally called metaphysics: above or after physics Had issues with platos theory of forms Created 10 categories of being 4 causes, 3 types of sciences, Syllogism God is the final cause. , T or F: Inside the cave represents the World of Senses and outside the cave represents the World of Forms, T or F: Socrates argued that the soul is an eternal thing and more. either determinisim is true or is false 2. A pleasure whose existence depends necessarily on a previous (or simultaneous) valley of pain/suffering. In today’s digital age, technology has revolutionized the way we learn and acquire knowledge. what our fundamental duties are. The design in any human artifact is the effect of having. Some of the properties pick out "A" uniquely 3. logic- studies the nature of truth, validity, and the form of reasoning. Jones is the sort of person who is reasonable and understands the gravity of the threat, but had already decided to do P, not because of the threat, but because he's. According to Maria Lugones and Elizabeth Spelman, feminism historically (in America) was the feminism of middle to upper-class white women and there have of course been movements (even within the movement that is the shared and constant struggle against the patriarchy: Feminism) to create caring "_____" that foster growth within and across race and class divisions. Accusations against Socrates, Buddha's no-self teaching, Plato's view on philosopher kings, Characteristics of Plato's forms, Objection to memory criterion, …. It has moral worth/value only in VIRTUE of our NEED of it. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Greek words for philosophy, Slippery slope argument, How does philosophy help you think? and more. What is the classical calculation of Utilitarianism? Theory that an action is morally good only if it produces as much good as or more than any alternative behavior. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Difference between aesthetic empiricism and contextualism, Explain the paradox of terrible beauty, Explain Plato's critique of the poets in the Ion and the Republic and more. Philosophy of History after Rousseau. describe reasons to believe that hard determinism are correct. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like If the search for good reasons for our beliefs is carried far enough, the searcher confronts questions of [x]. "Metaphysics has traditionally been considered as the chief, or queen, of the philosophical science. It has moral worth/value in-and-of itself, REGARDLESS of our NEED of it. Exam 1 Learn with flashcards, games, and more — for free. The word "philosophy" comes from two Greek roots that mean ________. Quiz yourself with questions and answers for Philosophy Final , so you can be ready for test day. We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. -Aristotle compares the souls (life principles; causes of life; "psyches") of plants, animals and men to geometrical objects. Study Flashcards On Philosophy Exam 1 Review: Chapters 1,2, & 3 at Cram. According to Astell, Intellectual pride leads people to. What are the 6 main branches of philosophy. All premises are true and are strong. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like What is phenomenology?, What is study of reality?, What is the study of knowledge? and more. He has the right philosophy of self because he believed you are what you make of yourself. - Civil Disobedience: illegal and the person knows it is 1)That act is illegal (it violates a law); the agent knows that the act is illegal 2)The agent believes that it is his/her (moral) duty to disobey the law, because the agent believes that the law is objectionable or unjust 3) 1)and 2) are related: the agent knowingly violates the law because the agent believes that it is …. We cannot praise other cultures if we cannot criticize them 2. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Utilitarianism and contractarianism are both form of ethical monism. Metaphysics (nature of reality) Epistemology (knowledge) Ethics (morals, rights and wrongs) Logic (truth, reasoning) Political (laws, government). Everything in the ecosystem is equal in terms of intrinsic moral value. Liberal education based upon Plato's Republic. In virtue ethics, morality is: happiness or being well. Births and Deaths of Famous Intellectuals - 7 cards. 2) Parses out a key philosophical term. An argument whose true propositions give reasonable grounds for accepting the truth of the conclusion. The Sophists aim for victory in argument, or put another way, …. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Who concluded that "to be is to be perceived" (the existence of anything is dependent on mind)? A. 3:15 "Always be prepared to make a defense for the hope within you". The environment is instrumentally valuable. It will be closed-book and closed-notes. - Instrumental Value: Something valuable because of the good things that will come of it - in that it helps us achieve / serves as a means for a goal - Intrinsic Value: Something worth pursuing in its own right, valuable in and of itself. Only positive causation is that i am a perceiver. Philosophy and Critical Thinking final exam. Philo was a skeptic, agreed with Demea that God is incomprehensible, but he said there is no way God could be a moral being, no moral attributes (benevolence, justice, etc. 5)there would be nothing to bring things into existence. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Which of the following branches of philosophy does NOT involve questions related to values? a. Philosophy Final Exam Study Guide. Philosophy of History is primarily concerned about which of the following. T/F, A reason to think causal determinism is true is the fact that most of science, which has been very successful, bases its theories off the …. concept/definition) of God no . Smith counted the coins in his pocket 10 minutes ago. They are "created realities" that are the ground of true and false in each era. Descartes' mind-body dualism refers to what view of the universe? Click the card to flip 👆. Categorical and Hypothetical Imperatives. In today’s digital age, students have a wide range of tools at their disposal to aid in their exam preparation. 5ft9 song * matching w definitions & give ex of each*, What is Aristotle's basic definition of Happiness?, How does Aristotle define moral/ethical virtue? Give an example of a virtue and. Since we are all equally human, we must all be equally rational. b) we know that lying promises are wrong because the rule that allows it leads to contradiction. rule34 warcraft True or False: The identity theory of the mind claims that states of consciousness are identical with states of the brain. If something (a) exists only in the mind and (b) might have existed outside the mind, then that something could have been greater than it is. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Who stated, "the unexamined life is not worth living"?, This philosopher was an atheist who thought that humans were completely determined by economic forces (not free will choices). Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Rationalism, Empirical, Skepticism and more. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Morality is a subfield of religion. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like According to plato, the following is an example of________. based on a person performing his task. -------is purposive and goal oriented, which is demonstrated by a things entelechy or inner drive toward its goal. Students also viewed · Philosophy Areas of Study. we have no conception of the subject in which qualities inhere. why does Pascal think we divert ourselves and what do they keep us from. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like who was the hero of western philosophy?, 3 parts in which philosophy is divided into, what is the most important question in life? and more. Essentials: The exam will take place on Thursday, December 20 from 12:00 to 2:00 p. a test made by alan turing for intelligence in a computer to see if a human should be unable to distinguish a machine from another human. , Ethics is the study of human conduct and human values. Philosophy of Religion Final Exam. The movie Thor represents which mythical story. , The Rig Veda was written down by the pre-Aryan peoples of the Indus Civilization, and it first developed the idea that all karma binds one to samsara. Scientists and philosophers agree that: a. perceptions of material things and events; 2) Evil is the result of sin; Evil is God's punishment for human misdeeds - Notice. knowledge gained from this world through the senses. 1) Metaphysics (reality) 2) Epistemology (knowledge) 3) Ethics (morals) 4. Briefly explain the difference between instrumental and intrinsic value. , Bertrand Russell said that the nature of reality is difficult to arrive at because_____. Christ and culture in paradox- sees culture as good creation that has been tainted by sin. The statement "If Joan comes to the party, then Harry won't come to the party" is correctly symbolized as: a. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like difference between KNOWLEDGE and merely "TRUE BELIEF", 3 of 6 points of RATIONALISM, 1 of 3 points of empiricism and more. Which logical principle do the two following statements violate: "Dr. Create a free account to master your material with this study mode. formal cause- the idea of what a thing will be. , Cartesian dualism posits, Descartes believed that interaction between body and mind took place in and more. Biomedical Ethics Simmons - 35 cards. nature of objects is that they break down. final, formal, and material causes melt into which two. When it comes to automobile design, Citroen has always stood out from the crowd. - because; therefore; given that. metaphysics- what exists, nothing beyond the physical. ohio meme song , What the libertarian objection would be to any utilitarian argument favoring the redistribution of wealth and income so that the distribution would be more …. According to Aristotle, a ----is either true or false, but it cannot be. Profile Picture · GPeacock1997. Pragmatism emphasizes the lowercase t truths but does recognize that there are capital T truth. Hypothetical (if-then) syllogism. In the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic- Dante picture of the world ----is a literal direction and above us. the philosophy that holds that every event, action, and decision results from something independent of the human will. These can be purchased at the bookstore. A lover and pursuer of wisdom, regardless of the subject matter D. 4) therefore, it is possible that there was a time when nothing existed. Name the six primary branches of philosophy and describe what each one studies. Aims and Methods of Moral Philosophy. The study of the fundamental nature of reality. a substance that causes and constitutes all things in the world. A) Reason B) Epistemology C) …. therefore, if determinismis true, no one has free will 5. Someone who studies the stars and planets. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Which of the following is a Kantian moral rule?, If an argument is valid, then:, How would Kant categorize the following action?. This course will introduce you to the basic concepts and methods of moral and political …. ~A belief that all knowledge is derived from. According to the Buddha's Four Noble Truths, the cause of suffering is. The Conceptual Relativist believes that knowledge is relative, and in fact, theories of science are. Reggio Emilia is not a theorist but rather an educational approach that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia in northern Italy. , The term Stoicism comes from the Greek word "stoa," which means _____. Intro into Philosophy: FINAL EXAM. efficient cause- the too;d to make a thing what it will be. Who is a philosopher, in the original sense of the world? A lover and pursuer of wisdom, regardless of the subject matter. to all rational beings in all places at all times. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like A sound argument is one where the premises are true and the argument is valid. how much do guests get paid on the gutfeld show Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Judge our own behavior as stemming from external, situational factors, as opposed to stemming from some aspect of our personality. Dec 6, 2021 · Philosophy Final Exam. practice mcq apush Plato's systematic philosophy includes. The study of fundamental values and principals that specify how we ought to behave. rightness or wrongness of an action is settled by the say-so of the society to which the actor belongs. The distinction between personal and political violence is often unclear: a strongman might seize power and fight an enemy for personal reasons. Ross's approach to the moral rule against promise breaking differ from utilitarian approach and the Kantian approach and more. What is the study of morality? ethics. They have no knowledge of who they are going to be in terms of their race, religion, sex, personality characteristics, etc. In the world of internet browsing, Mozilla is a name that is synonymous with open-source software and innovation. there are no objective ethical values or truths. An action that is constant with duty, but not done from duty. And melody, rhythm, and harmony also fall under music. Doubt that a small action can be extrapolated to a larger one, such as. Which of the following is not a feature of white ignorance, according to Charles Mills? a. -Objection to strong AI from Searle. When a disjunctive premise presents 2 unlikely alternatives as if they were the only ones available, and the arguer then eliminates the undesirable alternative. As an exercise in mock-heroic writing, write a prose description. In Canto III, Pope describes making and drinking coffee in rich, elevated, and roundabout language. Image and Gender GGS108 exam 1. II (Scott Waller_Final) 15 terms. Management philosophy is the philosophy adopted by a company’s executives outlining how they believe a business should be directed, particularly with regard to the treatment of fel. A ------contains only three terms: the major, minor premises and a conclusion. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like According to Kant, actions conform to duty when they are undertaken for the sake of greater good or happiness. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like A deductive argument reasons from general to specific. there must be an unmoved first mover. ethics- moral philosophy/ what is right and wrong. A person primarily interested in the truth about moral matters C. If you don't believe you can live life more freely so you win finite happiness, but you risk eternal damnation. Quiz yourself with questions and answers for Philosophy Final (Quiz 5), so you can be ready for test day. Three types of action constitute harm to others: 1) actions that directly diminish another's well-being; 2) failure to perform one's obligations to identifiable persons; 3) failure to perform ones share of what is required for a decent common life in society (ex. The above is an example of: and more. if you can never choose, then you dont have free will 4. What is the translation of the word ‘philosophy’? What is the definition of philosophy?. , [x] was the first historian to record historical events as being the. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Not investigating whether or not one's beliefs about the physical universe make sense in connection with their beliefs about their gods fails which criterion of good thinking/philosophy/science? a. The above argument is:, If God exists, then all is well. From its sleek and intuitive products to its captivating marketing campaigns, App. bodyslide presets not showing up Philosophy Final Exam- Virtue and Feminist Ethics. Jones has already decided to do P (say, P = Jones buys a beer), but then someone threatens to do X (say, murder Jones' children) if he doesn't do P. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like over the last 30 years, inequalities in wealth and income in the US have grown slowly, the bottom half in the US owns only a small fraction of the nation's wealth, utilitarianism maintains that if a new policy results in more happiness than the status quo, the the new policy is morally permissible …. been made by an intelligent being. Arbitrariness of Morality Objection. The sex of our bodies is given, we can't choose it because it's something we have already. Applied Ethics- (the study of the application of ethical thought) 3. 1) Pythagoras - universal language, numbers are math. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like People consider an ethical person to be _____, Recall the "lifeboat" scenario in which you imagine yourself as the captain of a wrecked ship who must decide on whether to throw some people off the crowded lifeboat to keep it afloat or to allow all the survivors, including yourself, to drown. Quiz yourself with questions and answers for philosophy final exam, so you can be ready for test day. heal spirit emote Terms in this set (35) Ritual Theory of Art. Philosophy 1100 FINAL (Online-Hall) Mizzou. According to Benedict, the best cases for illustrating the range of cultural diversity are. , According to Plato, reason is the highest faculty of the soul and wisdom is the highest …. we will still admire the ability of the watch-maker. Intro to philosophy 100% (5) 2. The time of death deprives one of some life, but the time of birth doesn't 4. student of both Aristotle and Socrates d. communicability, Literary writing, like that of …. One believes in ancient customs, and the other advocates for novelty. Descartes says reason is equal in all of us because we are all essentially rational animals, and while we may differ with respect to our accidental, or non-essential, properties, we must all share the same form, or essential properties. What does it mean to think philosophically? To think philosophically means, in the vaguest of senses, to introspect about life in general, humanity, creation, and other abstract puzzling topics present in today's world. The term "eudaimonia" refers to: the use of precedents from previous cases and analogy to provide guidance in new moral cases. a) Black philosopher on African Liberation. Terms in this set (154) Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Aristotle's primary area of interest was, Which of the following is not one of the ten basic categories Aristotle used to describe the ways in which humans think about things?, How many souls did Aristotle believe humans have? and more. A claim or belief that something is either right or wrong, or good or bad, or fair or unfair or evil. The Second Way: Argument from Efficient Causes. - for the reason that; it follows that; therefore. ) Our highest end isn't the pursuit of bodily pleasures. Study Flashcards On Philosophy Final Exam Review at Cram. ex: You have an imperfect duty to give to charity, can give 5% of income or donate kidney. (b) Suggest one or two reasons why some people might choose not to ask/seek answers to those two questions. A modern movement in philosophy that puts a greater emphasis on individual choice and the voluntary acceptance (or creation) of one's values. In recent years, there has been a growing trend in the culinary world towards farm-to-table dining. a feeling of total and deep responsibility. The study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as a academic discipline. In a debate, the burden of proof lies on the participant who. The quest to "know thyself" is central to many philosophical and religious traditions around the world. The primary reason that Descartes doubted so many things was: D: Asking questions of people and then questioning their answers. is strongly inclined to help other people b. An argument equivocates if and only if some of its expressions. DeSales University Learn with flashcards, games, and more — for free. Mill's Response: Higher and Lower Pleasures. 3) It is unjust to die when you have the opportunity to live and think about the children they need you and dying is the easy way out. Practice argument and dialectic lead a life of service (get a job) …. What is the relationship between them?, What does Aristotle mean by the term accident, and what is the difference between a substance and an accident?, Define and …. These conclusions are often:, Which philosophic method starts as follows: …. He believes that since not everyone has virtues, not everyone is happy. Conly - claims the necessary things for coercion, os. assuming that a claim must be true because no one has shown it to be false. The Kantian moral principle known as the principle of humanity states Click the card to flip 👆. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Is there any reason to not commit suicide?, True, Claude Lévi-Strauss and more. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like What theory of justice is particularly concerned with the fair allocation of a society's resources?, Karen. All those qualities have to exist in a substance. * Knowing life is absurd, so take advantage of all life's gifts and lick as much honey as possible. The belief that we can have no true knowledge concerning the world. The Eightfold Path include all of the following except. Otherwise our knowledge is relative to us and humans are fallible. A marketing philosophy is a foundational idea that becomes a part of all of the work that a marketing department accomplishes for a company or organization. Quiz yourself with questions and answers for Western Philosophy Final, so you can be ready for test day. The four main division of philosophy are metaphysic, logic, axiology, and_____. phil 101 – introduction to philosophy Exam Date and Time: April 26, 12:00-3:00pm The final exam will have three parts: (1) a set of key concepts to be identified and defined (see word bank below); (2) a series of short questions selected from the readings and class presentations; and (3) a short take home essay. I studied for the philosophy test. Does guesswork have a role to play in our aquisitions and developments of human knowledge. What is the relationship between them?, What does Aristotle mean by the term accident, and what is the difference between a substance and an accident?, Define and explain, with examples, the nine types of. Started playing the piano and writing poetry at age 6. The only one that wasn't open note. Tales that represent good values fall under music. Aristotle (Chapter 7) For Aristotle what is the difference between intellectual and moral virtues? What sorts of intellectual virtues are …. used tractors for sale wisconsin man by nature are equal (in a political sense) 3. 1) The conclusion cannot be stronger than your premises2) You cannot draw a conclusion from two negative premises3) You cannot draw a conclusion from two particular premises4) The middle term has to be the predicate of the negative premise, the subject of the universal premise, or both. But NOTE: where it asks you to know a philosopher's view on some matter, make sure that you know the details behind the philosopher's reasoning, not just the conclusion!. ) My beliefs and desires are entirely caused by things that are beyond my control. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like pleasure is always good, regardless of its source, Epictetus distinguished between control and influence, cynics believe that the very essence of society is corrupt and more. , when they get us what we want. judgment of regret, the world cannot get better/worse. Right and Wrong- The first sign of wisdom. Philosophy 101 Final Exam Study Guide. communicability, Literary writing, like that of Hemingway or Steinbeck, in. -the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence. Start studying Philosophy 101 Final Study Guide. Modern physics' goal is technology and medicine. Philosophy final · Flashcards · Learn · Test · Match · Q-Chat . , Singer claims that his principle: a)takes no account of proximity or distance. For Plato, the real world is (where)? How does the ideal world …. Use an example of each to illustrate. Examples of nursing philosophies include fostering a healing environment for patients, treating others with compassion and respect, and advocating for patient rights. Quiz yourself with questions and answers for Philosophy Final (7-14), so you can be ready for test day. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like What Kant would find problematic about the libertarian idea that we own ourselves. Philosophy is critical analysis of assumptions and beliefs that are to be used in pursuit of wisdom and morals. Western Civilization Study Guide Final Exam. Which philosopher inverts the mind/body relationship such that the body is the primary and too much emphasis on the mind is a symptom of "decadence"? Nietzsche. 4) and being all-powerful, he could create a world without evil or remove any existing evil. , People often learn through the study of Philosophy that they have been holding beliefs about themselves and about the world that are often times inconsistent or …. Justifying abuse on the grounds that it is better than the worst alternative, we create a slippery slope leading to the complete devaluation of human life. Why is diversity a challenge for modern feminism? Race, class, and gender are tied together in ways that make working-class and minority women disadvantaged in different ways from middle-class. Forms don't exist at all apart from the mind's perception of them in particular objects. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like (true or false) According to Soren Kierkegarrd, philosophy is the search for . desire camera scp A political philosophy based in _____________________, says that the state should recognize that no one culture holds all the keys to human flourishing and should therefore tolerate or promote cultural diversity. She should lie, because the utility of saving a life outweighs the claims of justice's. Preview [AAPC] Edge Quiz - April 2023. Matching terms to concepts in philosophy. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like A statement which is necessarily true and which says "something new" (according to Kant), The arche paradigm involves, Within the methodology of "everyday general history about Northwest", the claim "the Bearcats won the national championship two years in arrow" is and more. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like One's full potential, a method of examining and discussing opposing ideas in order to find the truth, "love" and "wisdom" and more. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Actual vs Hypothetical contracts, actual and hypothetical contract relationships to actual/hypothetical consent/agreement, Autonomy -gives contracts moral force and more. The study of knowledge, truth, justification, etc. What is?, In Plato's Apology, in what two ways does Socrates show his jurors that they are also committed to the view that death is not the worst of evils?, Explain the three different kinds of goods that Glaucon distinguishes at the beginning of Republic,book ii. ), What Kant's terminology of "inclination" refers to. Philosophy Exam 3 Classical Liberalism. when the positive experience fades to the extent that i return to my baseline happiness before the experience. - A philosophy that focuses only on the outcomes and effects of processes and situations. She knows all the physical facts regarding the experience of seeing color. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like which characteristics are essential to being a human person? Are human beings selfish creatures? Are human beings social creatures who genuinely care for the well-being of others? These philosophical questions are central for, Of the following philosophical problems, which one is the most …. rather, material objects are the subjects in which those qualities inhere. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like The study of philosophy includes Epistemology. According to Kierkegaard which of the following is not an aspect of "Human Life?" Universal Truth. By signing up, you accept Quizlet's Terms of Service and Privacy Policy. PHILOSOPHY 114 Exam Review (SVSU) 132 terms. Start studying Philosophy Final Exam 160. Plato's idea of justice is ___. until doing so requires us to sacrifice anything morally significant. the view that every action or event involved in an action is causally determined by prior events. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Your text (and professor) suggests that philosophy inevitably involves asking and seeking answers to 'the big questions of life'. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like According to Aristotle, a complete understanding of anything can only come from identifying its four causes. What is uncertainty? Skepticism. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Which of the following philosophers maintained that reason is and ought to be a slave of the passions?, According to Ethical Egoism, the right moral actions should be motivated by, Which of the following factors is NOT included in Bentham's hedonistic calculus of pleasures? and more. P2) A zygote, embryo, or fetus (ZEF) is an innocent human. Who is Aristotle? Click the card to flip 👆. Being and Nothingness, and Nausea. The ideal world would be perfectly in line with the forms. True or False: Functionalists deny that mental states can be explained in terms of perceptual inputs and behavioral outputs. Quiz yourself with questions and answers for Philosophy Final - True or False Questions, so you can be ready for test day. True or False: Leibniz held that innate ideas were tendencies. Went at boarding school from age 14 - 20, formed music group; headaches. fdny twitter alerts Explain what he means by Material, Efficient, Formal and Final and give an example of each. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Consequentialism, Different Consequentialist Views (how they differ), Utilitarianism and more. phil 101 – introduction to philosophy Exam Date and Time: April 26, 12:00-3:00pm The final exam will have three parts: (1) a set of key concepts to be identified and defined (see …. Men have dominated women in the same way humans have dominated nature. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Verbal signals that a writer intends what follows to be a premise in an argument include the following: - because; given that; since. Terms in this set (38) Descartes (1596-1650) French philosopher, discovered analytical ….