Silver Hallmarks Identification Wizard - English silver hallmarks: British maker's marks identification: BW.

Last updated:

Medicine Matters Sharing successes, challenges and daily happenings in the Department of Medicine ARTICLE: Identification and Management of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease R. Hallmark example, James Dixon & Sons, Sheffield, Lion Passant, 1911. Look for these numbers on the hallmark. craigslist sapulpa houses for rent Not a Danish maker, but a New York retailer, located at 56th St. Steane & Co before the forming of Barbour Bros Co: Marks and information in AMERICAN STERLING SILVER section: ALBARELLO VALERIO: further marks and …. The harp symbol is the oldest and most recognizable of the Irish hallmarks. dr valina bbl The year an item was assayed is represented by an individual letter, stamped towards the right-hand end of the hallmark. Founded in 2006 by Jonathan and Daniel Franks (of I. Josef Arnold (1884 - 1960) worked in Hamburg, Germany, he trained with his father at Bruckmann & Sohne (Art Nouveau & Art Deco Silver, Annelies Krekel-Aalberse, pg 145 and 251). John Gilbert - John Gilbert & Co. JM maker's marks of an illustrated directory listing 3000 hallmarks of England, Scotland, Ireland, Channel Islands and Colonial silver (Canada, India, Cape, Australia), maker marks, town marks, date letter, duty marks. Additionally, silversmiths would stamp the piece with the mark of the silversmith. In a more general sense, the term hallmark can also be used to refer to any distinguishing mark. Born into a working class family in the town of Raadvad just to the north of Copenhagen in 1866, Jensen was son of a knife grinder. NOTE: Since 1 January 1999 the traditional fineness mark (e. per ounce on all gold and silverwares wrought in Ireland, and to prove the duty had been …. A mark of “925” means that the item is made of 92. A comprehensive internet resource for research of Silver Marks, Hallmarks & Maker's Marks found on antique and vintage silver and silverplate. atchison busted newspaper nick jr coloring book game stiiizy verified more than once 90 is the most frequent, but various other silver quantity of silver can be used in the process and the corresponding number is punched in silverplated flatware. This is called ‘derde zilvergehalte’ in Dutch. It is a symbol of Ireland and has been used on Irish silver since the 17th century. Walker, made in 1932 for Hobart's St Mary's Cathedral. This can indicate that the piece is an antique. The hallmark “EPNS” means that the piece is silver-plated. Decoding silver hallmarks may seem daunting, but it's akin to learning a new language. Yogya Silver Marks It was not until the 1930s that the use of a maker's mark became common practice. " The juxtaposition symbolizes the investigative journey of dating heirloom treasures. American Silver ~ Pictorial Marks • www. 313) ordered the elimination of the 'fascio' (symbol of 'fascism') maintaining into the lozenge only the number (identification of the silversmith) and the two letters. The example mark reads, top to bottom: date mark (letter. This is usually indicated by a symbol or letter. You may also see lower percentages of silver, such as 900 or 800. Tardy International Hallmarks on Silver is a book published in print to Identify the age and origin of silverware pieces. Harford Works, Harford Street, Birmingham. It is the logo of BIS which is a dot inside a triangle. Piece by piece, these elements form a story waiting to be unveiled. Jul 23, 2022 · The hallmarks on a piece of silver are there to provide you with information on the purity of the silver, who designed it, and occasionally to give you insight into when the item was made. Lion passant guardant or Britannia or lion's head erased, certifying the silver quality. Active 1882-1869, souvenir spoons, baby items & picture frames. In addition to these marks, German silver hallmarks may. Hallmarks and identification for silver fruit knives and silver cutlery. By 1839, scientists in Britain and Russia had independently devised metal deposition processes similar to Brugnatelli's for the copper electroplating of printing press plates. The minimum weight that requires hallmarking for each metal is as follows: 0. These should include the maker's mark, the assay office mark, and the date letters. Such stamps are called silver hallmarks. Henceforth, future generation of collectors will fewer and fewer find the full set of hallmarks that for hundreds of years …. English silver hallmarks are divided into five parts. Maker’s Mark: This stamp identifies the manufacturer or designer of the piece. The use of the "crown" on silverplate wares was tolerated for about 50 years, until, in c. Barnard & Sons Bateman Family M. In this page I presents some marks of Italian factories, identified or not identified, trying to create the bases for a future deepening of this. Prior to 1998, a hallmark consisted of four compulsory marks - the maker's mark, the metal purity, the assay office. jpg File size: 175 KB Views: 57. The Town Mark - There are a variety of. wsoc helicopter crash Marthinsen Sølvvarefabrikk: established c. Most vintage jewelry brands use a ‘Maker’s name or Initials’ hallmark. This is the mark of an electroplater, so not a hallmark. From this time, English silver was required to be at least 92. Detailed image of hallmark far right. The firm was classified by Chester Assay Office as "Tabacconist and fancy goods dealers". The "Mexico Silver" or "Silver Made in Mexico" marks are seen on pieces from the 1920's through mid 1940's, their silver standard varies, but is commonly above. Usually also includes a maker's mark or touchmark. 1930 with factory at 610-618 Broadway and salesroom at 339 Fifth Avenue, New York. This is the ultimate guide to recognize the marks that identify any piece of valuable metal (silver, gold etc). 90 zolotniki = 90/96 or 937/1000 parts pure silver or. Francis Higgins acted as manager from 1859 to 1868. Saint John - New Brunswick 1813-1864 mark. Sometimes, the most valuable information is hidden in the smallest details. This set of hallmarks was from 1945-51, and was used only in the Copenhagen Georg Jensen shop. Read more in our dedicated silver hallmarks guide here: http. Handwrought Arts & Crafts, her husband Heinrich worked for Kalo. A letter mark coinciding with the date of assay was first introduced in London in 1477. This mark is referred to as a "hallmark. The four standard marks of a hallmark were the standard/purity mark, the assay office symbol, the date letter and the maker's mark. BIRMINGHAM DATE LETTERS CHART / SILVER HALLMARKS UK. WG-WL: an illustrated directory listing 3000 British hallmarks and marks of England, Scotland and Ireland silver, maker mark, town mark, date letter, duty mark, An illustrated selection of English silvermiths marks of 18th, 19th, and 20th century: 18th CENTURY SILVERSMITHS, WG into a penthagon, William Gough , WG, William Ged , WG in script, William Grundy , WG gothic under a crown, William. You need to use the page of the FIGURAL MARKS, find the corresponding …. The first step in reading silver hallmarks is to locate the marks on your item. In Germany, the most commonly used purity standards during the 19th century were 800 (80% silver), 835 (83. This feature, while often obtaining a pleasing visual effect, makes difficult the identification of the manufacturer. Eagle: The Eagle hallmark is the most frequently found hallmark on gold jewellery. The first mark is the town mark, which indicates the city or town where the item was made. The business was established in Sheffield in 1845 by George Walker. Used on both new and vintage pieces of French origin, this hallmark guarantees jewellery in 750% gold (18k). Manufacturers of sterling silver and silverplate ware. Purity marks, such as the lion passant denoting sterling silver in. Items Similar to Antique Silver Large Spoon Galt Vintage Estate Classic Engraved Grooved View More. Hallmarking gold jewellery was Europe's earliest form of. Silver is often blended with other metals for increased strength. craigslist chicago apt for rent An anchor marks Birmingham silver. SA-SZ: alphabetical glossary of marks and hallmarks of Sheffield silver plate makers, whith the addition of other British, Scottish and Irish silverplate makers, EPNS, EPBM, EPWM - Electroplate on White Metal, EPC - Electroplate on Copper, Argentium Argentine Plate, Argentum, Ascetic B. TRADEMARKS CONTAINING ONLY FIGURAL OR GRAPHIC SYMBOLS. Active 1879-1896, manufacturers of sterling and silverplate flatware. For a long while, missing any documented reference, the mark "C 'heraldic crown' S" has been attributed to Continental Silver Co. the unforeseen guest chapter 33 A fifth duty mark was used between 1784 and 1890. Ltd, Ashberry, Austrian Silver, Brazilian Silver D&A Daniel and Arter, Buxbridge JT Co. Most vintage jewelry brands use a 'Maker's name or Initials' hallmark. “925” or “Sterling”: Genuine Taxco silver is typically made from 92. nearest fedex or ups To navigate the site, it is easiest to use the green menu bar at the top of the screen. com • Alphabetical Listing of Silverplate Manufacturers by Maker's Name. no ethanol gas station near me Sargison (1885-1983) was active from 1920 c. Maker's mark was prescribed a standard form, a lozenge with cut sides. The most important symbol to look for is the lion passant (4), which identifies the purity of your piece is sterling silver. To identify the makers you can refer to the illustrated trade names list of this site. The marks are: an illustrated directory listing 3000 hallmarks of England, Scotland, Ireland, Channel Islands and Colonial silver (Canada. The Wizarding World of Harry Potter at Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal Orlando is a must see for everyone with immersive details & magical rides! Save money, experience m. or via drop-down list: | Home |. usually seen with import marks. Originally it signified the Assay Master responsible for testing and marking the silver. Hallmarking in Finland was compulsory since 1754 and a date mark system introduced in 1759. Scallop: This hallmark exists since 1994 and it guarantees gold at 585% on new and second-hand works (14k). Mac January 28, 2010, 11:31pm 2. Note at centre of the image at right the four elements of the hallmark. top left ~ 1831 - 1868, Second standard mark for. JJV in script and English pseudo-hallmarks. Looking to buy silver? We did the research for you and listed our top picks and insights for buying silver coins, dollars. By law, British sterling must be 925 parts silver to 75 parts other alloy metals, or 925/1000. 6K subscribers in the Hallmarks community. The marks are usually found on the underside of the item, but they can also be found on the sides or the top. Knowing the common silver hallmarks can help you identify silver items and determine their purity …. Hallmarks of Italian silver /late 19th century and 20th century) : an article by Giorgio Busetto for ASCAS - Association of Small Collectors of Antique Silver website n. The hallmarking of British silver is based on a combination of marks that makes possible the identification of the origin and the age of each silver piece manufactured or traded in the UK. Gold hallmarking primarily employs two methods – stamped and laser. BLACKINTON & CO - North Attleboro, MA. anchors, animals, arrows, bells, birds and wings, candelabra, crosses, crowns. Later, trademarks that showed which goldsmith had manufactured the product were added. To simplify the other commonly used gold hallmarks, here is a handy chart of the. International was a conglomerate of many companies and. Two employees in 1894, twenty-six in 1898. superior grocers dmv kiosk Use our Hallmark Identification Wizard. HALLMARKS OF ITALIAN SILVER (LATE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURY) (identification of the silversmith) and the two letters (initials of the Province). Expert Advice On Improving Your Home Videos Late. This will usually be the first mark you see on the item and it will be a number followed by the letter S. Silver Marks is a comprehensive database of silver hallmarks that allows users to easily identify the manufacturer, date, and metal content of a piece of silverware. Thomas Northcote, London 1796 hallmark. Hallmark Identification [Date Letters] Scottish Provincial Marks Identification. Most of them were entered by Baron Elkan, Managing Director. He entered his first mark (TN) on 20th August 1776 following five years in the workshops of Thomas Chawner. founded in 1829 by brothers Nathan Peabody and James Tyler Ames. Step 5: Look for the Maker’s Mark. If the trade mark contains only alphabet letters (usually name's initials) the search of information requests a previous step: to find the name of the maker. The ESMC symbol was found in a silverplate teapot (maker Austin & Dodson & Co) with applied silver mounts supporting the handle. Gold-Traders has compiled a gold hallmark identification wizard to help decipher the markings that are stamped on your item. The 1980s brought major changes to professional wrestling and is often credited with boosting its appeal to a broader fan base. The Assay Office Mark identifies where the item was tested and marked. George Richards Elkington (October 17, 1801–September 22, 1865) was a manufacturer from Birmingham, England. But many other names are used for silver plate: EPWM - Electroplate on …. 925 silver, the decimal number indicates the amount of pure silver in parts per thousandth. The availability of new lozenges was not immediate and for a short period the old marks with the obliterated ‘fascio’ were maintained. Whether you're a seasoned collector or just starting to build your silverware collection, this app is an indispensable tool. "Lucas Spooner" passed away and a partnership of Yates and …. The Lion Passant – This mark indicates the purity of the silver which is almost always 925 parts per 1000. The second mark was used from 1904 with numeric standard mark, date letter and sponsor. The app has been rebuilt from the ground up! UI tweaks and a huge performance boost. This means that the alloy is composed of 925 parts silver out of 1000, or 92. American Silver Marks ~ Initial M • www. The firm was founded in 1833 by Robert James Chaplin. The intaglio "900" mark is found on work dating from the turn of the century until the 1920's. You can find the hallmark on the back handles of spoons, generally just below the bowl. John Wright who had conducted important experiments on electroplating Walker secured the royalty of electroplating for Sheffield. You may have birds in your chimney if you are hearing rustling and chirping. Welcome to our simple gold hallmark guide. Although primarily used to identify a piece of jewelry, Navajo silver hallmarks. Maker's mark, identifying the silversmith presenting the piece to the assay office (usually the initials of Christian name and surname of the silversmith) Date letter, in. The Millesimal Fineness Mark shows you the metal type, as no precious metals share the same numbers. Identification Chart Silver Hallmark Sterling silver Silverplate Not silver Sterling silver, made in England Sterling silver, made in Scotland Sterling silver, made in Ireland 958/1000 parts silver, made in England 900/1000 parts silver or. Also keep an eye out for a maker's mark to show who produced it. In this case the letter 'z' (2. So I recently got a joblot of silver plate from the auction and found some silver items contained within it. 3 (1729) that imposed a duty of 6d. JY maker's marks of an illustrated directory listing 3000 hallmarks of England, Scotland, Ireland, Channel Islands and Colonial silver (Canada, India, Cape, Australia), maker marks, town marks, date letter, duty marks. 958, used exclusively 1697 - 1720, optional afterwards. Examples of British Import Marks. Ward, W & S Ward, Waring & Gillow Ltd, George Waterhouse & Co, WATSON & GILLOTT, Daniel Welby & Co, W. Ames was the firm that introduced electroplating process in the United States. Sterling silver is renowned for its optimal balance between durability and luster, making it. Silver stamp marks, sometimes known as hallmarks or makers marks, give information about products made of silver. For an index to this master list of marks, click here. This is called 'derde zilvergehalte' in Dutch. xrares.c 1920 - 1988, the second was introduced in the mid-20s. Early American silver, Kovel said, instead usually had one maker’s mark, though some silversmiths or companies later added fancy logos or pictorial marks. Identify the hallmarks on your gold using our free hallmark identification wizard. These hallmarks are composed of a series of symbols, numbers, and letters that indicate the purity of the silver. The prime purpose of these marks is to show that the metal of the item upon which they are stamped is of a certain level of purity. The date letter is a letter of the alphabet that indicates. Gold can be used as an investment to hedge against inflation. A leopard's head marks post-1820 London silver. 2) AMERICAN STERLING SILVER MARKS. These hallmarks were first introduced in the 1300s in England as a way to ensure that silver items were made from a certain level of purity. Prior to this date, items containing platinum would often carry no markings or simply ‘Plat’ or ‘Platinum’ and would be of varying purity. The Standard mark indicates the purity of the silver. Granted in 1989 by Her Royal Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Ari D. Gunther Theodor Julius - Berlin. The son of a silver and electroplate manufacturer, he was apprenticed to a company of silversmiths and attended evening classes at Sheffield School of Art and later at the Royal College of Art in London. The new mark identifying the silversmith consisted of a lozenge containing: number: corresponding to the number identifying the silversmith. The marks are: an illustrated directory listing 3000 hallmarks of England, Scotland, Ireland, Channel Islands and. Purity marks on gold jewelry will consist of a two-digit number followed by the letter "k," or a three-digit number. In America, these marks are A1, AA, EP, or the full phrases "sterling inlaid", or "silver soldered. Hallmark Identification [Date Letters] …. Henry Slader Gilling is first recorded as a rose engine-turner from 1839 to 1845 at 41 King Square and then in 1846 and 1847 as an engine-turner at 2 Upper Charles Street, Northampton Square, Clerkenwell. The hallmark will read STER, "925," or "92. CZECHIA/CZECH REPUBLIC & SLOVAKIA. WT WW - William Turton & William Walbancke. it: your worldwide guide to silver hallmarks ancient and modern. The specific identification method is used for inventories of large items, like equipment, to determine the cost of goods sold. Based out of Lafayette, Louisiana with 5 operations worldwide: 3 in the United States, 1 in Bangkok, Thailand, and another in Barcelona, Spain. ase a3 study guide pdf It indicates the purity of the silver, the country of origin, and the makers mark. If the coin is silver, then the letter will read "A. As we move down the scale of gold purity, 20 karat gold is stamped as 833 to represent the 20:24 (or. Try our Symptom Checker Got any other symptoms? Try o. evoca tv channels Platinum (Pt) 700 g 850 g 870 g 900 g 940. This is indicated by the letter “M. Marks can include 800, 825, 830, or 850, indicating 80, 82. In short, a 925 jewelry stamp (hallmark) indicates the metal is 92. Most flatware should be made from sterling silver (92. In the late 18th Century, Polish lands were divided amongst the superpowers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Our app features a comprehensive database of silver hallmarks, along with detailed …. Use the links below to go to the section you want. This firm registered a mark in Chester in 1888 c. a Cape of Good Hope Colony silversmith. It may also contain an additional standard symbol to denote purity. meowbahh techno video For example, Q = 2015, R = 2016, S = 2017. Jan 31, 2024 · The maker or company name is usually stamped on the back of the piece, along with an indication that it's plated. The York assay office carried on until. wzqz 1180 am Newcastle Date Letters • 1702 - 1884 & Maker's Marks. Variations of the orientation of the Birmingham town mark can be seen since 1975 when it was placed on its side to note gold and platinum, and upright for silver. The silver marks of the Republic of Venice (except a brief period in 1805 when were adopted Austrian marks) were used until 1812. For example, the hallmark “925” indicates that the piece is made of sterling silver, which is 92. Although this is not an exclusive mark for gold, many hallmarks have a rounded rectangle and some bear the shape of 2 circles pushed into a rounded rectangle. Silver hallmarks help identify who made your piece, what grade of silver it is made from, the age and where it was hallmarked. the SITE MAP of the Silver Marks and Hallmarks Directory of Silvercollection. Expert John Rogers of Chiswick Auctions explains what silver hallmarks are and how they are used. DATE LETTERS - 1773 TO 2020 The date letters below show the background shape for silver. The silver hallmarks identification process is much more difficult on older pieces because the hallmark may not be as clear as it once was due to age or damage. Learn more about identification, potential prevention, and legal removal. The British hallmarking system was widely modified in 1999 and some of the traditional marks became optional symbols applied only on request alongside the compulsory hallmarks. AP maker's marks of an illustrated directory listing 3000 hallmarks of England, Scotland, Ireland, Channel Islands and Colonial silver (Canada, India, Cape, Australia), maker marks, town marks, date letter, duty marks. It may also include a symbol or the initials of the manufacturer. JEWELRY MARKS - SILVER MARKS & HALLMARKS - PEWTER MARKS: Online guides to identify and date Jewelry, Silver, Silverplate, Pewter, Precious Metals and other Metalware from all countries or periods This is a partial list from the tens of thousands of Jewelry or Silverware manufacturers and companies or studios that we have included in our. Mar 15, 2024 · Note at centre of the image at right the four elements of the hallmark. KO maker's marks of an illustrated directory listing 3000 hallmarks of England, Scotland, Ireland, Channel Islands and Colonial silver (Canada, India, Cape), maker marks, town marks, date letter, duty marks. The first step in identifying silver hallmarks is to determine the country of origin. Other marks include the “eagle” mark, which indicates the item was made in the city of Berlin, and the “moon” mark, which indicates the item was made in the city of Hamburg. This mark became crowned in 1478 and remained crowned until. It also shows you the fineness, or purity, of the precious metal content in parts per 1000. Sterling silver, for instance, will have a mark of '925. Related to silver hallmarks identification wizard. That's the key identifier that a piece is sterling silver. H, J Hilliard, James Hin, Joshua Hardy, IH under a crown, John Hamilton, John Harris, John Harris, IH in script, John. In total there are 131 users online :: 6 registered, 0 hidden and 125 guests (based on users active over the past 5 minutes) Most users ever online was 1596 on Thu Feb 06, 2020 3:51 pm. If you have any questions don't hesitate to contact the mods. Marks and information in AMERICAN SILVERPLATE section: WALLACE BROS SILVER COMPANY: further marks and information in AMERICAN SILVERPLATE section: R. Three wheat sheaves mark Chester silver. 925 silver, also known as sterling silver, is the high-end of a range of silver-based products. There may be some variations included backgrounds on the late 19th century, specialized upon watch cases. First standard mark was a Lyre. The #S123 refers to Schoonhoven makers active after 1940. For example, sterling silver should have a mark that says “sterling” or “925. Omar Ramsden (born Sheffield, 21 Aug 1873; died London, 9 Aug 1939). In that year, a decree by Edward I laid down that silver or gold could not be made or sold unless it was marked by the leopard's head or The King's Mark, as it was then known. Near the clasp of necklaces and chains. The Holmes & Edwards Silver Co began its activity in 1882 succeeding to Rogers & Brittin. Do you have silver flatware and don't know what to do with it? Here are the best places to sell silver flatware and get the best price. bottom ~ from 1942 - Standard mark, must be accompanied by a makers mark. For example, the hallmarks on silver flatware are usually located on the back of the piece, on a flat edge. The name of Manchester Silver Co from 1904 to 1914. Firstly, look for the country of origin. How to Identify Silver Hallmarks. Lion's passant guardant or Britannia or lion's head erased certifiying the silver's quality. GS and English pseudo hallmarks. 925 marked within an oval cartouche. Purity Marks: These marks indicate the content of pure silver in the alloy, usually expressed in parts per thousand. In the dappled light of my grandmother's cherished dining room, a set of ornate silver spoons lay nestled within the velvet-lined embrace of an aged mahogany drawer. About Contact Account Basket Order Direct: 0191 240 2645. By the early 19th century it was common to include pseudo marks that resembled British hallmarks, like sovereign's heads, lions, crowns. As a result of this intervention many electroplaters changed their marks deleting. These marks were occasionally accompanied by "Montreal", "Quebec" or "H", "HN" or "HNS" for Halifax. But many other names are used for silver plate: EPWM - Electroplate on White Metal. 5 below alcohol markers There are far too many to list here, but some common symbols include: • The Leopards Head- London, England. kubota g1800 3 point hitch Note that, alongside gold and bronze, silver Roman coinage from the mid-3rd century onward uses various bronze-silver alloys, and are deemed ’silver’, ‘billon. House centipedes can be an unsettling nuisance, but you can get rid of an infestation. WT over RA – William Theobalds & Robert Atkinson. The "F" was used, 1867 - 1904, in conjunction with a full set of Birmingham hallmarks. In 1798 guilds were declared abolished but remained partially active until 1807. Notice: The Web Archives are undergoing maintenance at this time and may be intermittently unavailable. anchor for Birmingham, leopard's head for London, etc. The maker or company name is usually stamped on the back of the piece, along with an indication that it's plated. The word "HALLMARK" derives from the fact that, since the 16th century, precious metals were sent to the London Goldsmiths' Hall for. silicone female body suits MAKER'S MARK IDENTIFICATION - ILLUSTRATED LISTING. Also please ensure that you have read over and understand the rules. How to identify the maker on American sterling silver and silver plate objects bearing only a mark with the initial letters or a figural symbol: literal . an illustrated directory listing 3000 hallmarks of England, Scotland, Ireland, Channel Islands and Colonial silver (Canada, India, Cape), maker marks, town marks, date letter, duty …. H ) John Round & Son Ltd - 1880c. low sleek swoop ponytail with weave Founded 1897, it was the metalcraft dept. Welcome This project has been 18 years in the making and now documents over 12,000 silver marks on 1,200+ pages and subpages. WM-WSan illustrated directory listing 3000 British hallmarks and marks of England, Scotland and Ireland silver, maker mark, town mark, date letter, duty mark, An illustrated selection of English silvermiths marks of 18th, 19th, and 20th century: 18th CENTURY SILVERSMITHS, WM into an oval, William Manton, William Marshall, William Moulson, WM under a crown into a trefoil, William Mortimer or. The trademark (or trade mark) is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, business organization, or other legal entity to signify that the products or services, to consumers with. Ward, W & S Ward, Waring & Gillow Ltd, George Waterhouse & Co, WATSON & GILLOTT, Daniel Welby & …. The hallmark is typically located on the underside or back of the item and is usually very. A comprehensive and updated database of over 12,000 silver marks from various countries and periods, with photos, descriptions, and references.